The Evolution of Scientific Utility

Science is often credited with shaping the modern world and fostering the advancement of Western civilization. The premise is straightforward: scientific discoveries lead to technological innovations, which in turn generate power, wealth, and overall prosperity.

However, there are several complexities within this notion, particularly regarding the timeline of when science began to have practical applications. Notably, historical evidence suggests that tangible contributions from science to technology were minimal until well after the West had achieved significant advancements. In essence, technological progress and the resultant prosperity predated the establishment of modern scientific practices.

To assess whether the Rise of the West occurred prior to the Rise of Science, we must examine the historical timelines of these events. Since the Dark Ages, particularly around the eighth century AD, Western civilization has been on an upward trajectory in terms of area, population, wealth, knowledge, and military strength. By the fifteenth century, the West had established itself as the most technologically advanced civilization known to history, possibly even earlier. This period also marked the beginning of overseas expansion, with the discovery of America in 1492 and Magellan's circumnavigation of the globe completed in 1522. The late eighteenth century heralded the Industrial Revolution in Britain, which subsequently spread across Europe. The Opium War (1839–42) further demonstrated the West's superiority, as Britain decisively defeated China.

But when did science truly emerge? The term "Scientific Revolution" is primarily linked to the seventeenth century, with its origins often traced back to 1543, when Copernicus published his work. Even at this early point, it is evident that the West had already been progressing in various metrics for centuries and possessed the most advanced technologies of its time.

A significant challenge to the theory that science drives technological advancement is the scarcity of documented instances where scientists directly contributed to technological innovations. According to McClellan and Dorn in their work Science and Technology in World History:

> “All of the technical innovations that formed the basis of the Industrial Revolution of the eighteenth and the first half of the nineteenth century were made by men who can best be described as craftsmen, artisans, or engineers. Few of them were university educated, and all of them achieved their results without the benefit of scientific theory.”

This observation holds true for the majority of technological advancements, particularly the most impactful ones. Inventors were seldom scientists, and scientists rarely took on the role of inventors. Even in cases where scientists did contribute to technology, their involvement was often not through scientific methodologies.

This trend continued into the nineteenth century. Thomas Edison, often hailed as one of history's greatest inventors, had only a few months of formal education before he achieved his numerous inventions. Although higher education became increasingly common among inventors as the century progressed, most innovators remained craftsmen or engineers rather than professional scientists. The phenomenon of college dropouts making substantial contributions to the world is a continuation of an age-old trend.

Nevertheless, the nineteenth century did witness the emergence of certain inventions linked to scientific principles, particularly in the field of chemistry. As university education became more widespread, the belief that research was a worthwhile investment gained traction. Edison’s establishment of the corporate research laboratory marked a significant turning point, yet the contributions of tinkerers, craftsmen, engineers, and hobbyists continued to surpass those of scientists.

What is the current landscape? Is science playing a more significant role in technology today? The answer appears to be affirmative. As of 2024, most inventors and innovators possess some form of higher education. A substantial amount of scientific research is directed towards developing new technologies, especially in the medical field. However, defining what constitutes "science" remains problematic. Are engineers classified as scientists? What about computer programmers? Figures like Steve Jobs, Bill Gates, Mark Zuckerberg, Jeff Bezos, and Elon Musk provoke further questions about this classification. What is evident is that most practical technological advancements today arise from businesses focused on profit rather than abstract scientific inquiries.

While the connection from science to technology may be tenuous, the reverse relationship—technology influencing science—is considerably stronger. Historian David Edgerton articulates this point effectively:

> “...there was flight before there was aeronautical engineering; there was photography long before any theory of the photographic process; there was any amount of highly specialized metal manufacture before metallurgy; and solid-state devices existed before solid-state physics.”

We should approach the equation of science and technology with caution.

Jakob Sjölander

[i] Lynn White, Jr. Medieval Technology and Social Change. Oxford University Press. (1964)[1962]. Chapter 3, section 2, page 128.

[ii] James E. McClellan III & Harold Dorn. Science and Technology in World History: An Introduction. The Johns Hopkins University Press. (1999). Chapter 13, section “Science and the Industrial Revolution,” page 287.

[iii] David Edgerton. The Shock of the Old: Technology and Global History Since 1900. Profile Books. (2006). Chapter 8, section “Academic science and invention,” page 186.