Exploring the Origins of Religious Instincts in Humanity
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The exploration of spirituality and the foundations of religion is a subject that captivates many, including myself, despite it being outside my primary expertise. My previous writings have delved into the unique traits of humanity, psychological aspects, and consciousness. This article seeks to examine the evolution of religion through the lenses of evolutionary psychology and behavior. During my research, I came across two enlightening pieces by Brandon Ambrosino, which I reference along with works from distinguished anthropologists, philosophers, and evolutionary biologists. These scholars illuminate the significance of rituals, emotions, and cognitive abilities in the historical development of religion. Central to my analysis is the interplay between morality and social cohesion in the emergence and evolution of religious practices. I believe these elements will continue to influence humanity as our innate instincts and enduring traditions evolve beyond contemporary religious structures.
As I trace the lineage of religion through our ancestors' history, a captivating narrative unfolds. What may seem like intricate religious practices today likely has its roots in simple play and empathy from thousands of years ago.
Modern humans retain deep connections to our tribal ancestry, reflecting a history rich in social bonds that have biological and evolutionary significance. The next time you observe a religious ceremony or engage in a ritual, remember that it represents a continuation of a long-standing history linking us to the playful and empathetic roots of our forebears, reinforcing the notion that our journey is intricately tied to the evolution of humankind.
It is well known that our ancestors once traversed vast landscapes, confronting challenges posed by nature, wildlife, and rival tribes. In such a dynamic setting, the need for social unity was essential for survival. Evolutionary psychologist Robin Dunbar highlights the vital role of primitive forms of religion—or rituals—in fostering communal bonds. In his book, How Religion Evolved: And Why It Endures, Dunbar argues that as humans transitioned from forest environments to open landscapes, the formation of larger groups became necessary for protection, resource acquisition, and reproductive advantages. However, increased social interactions also posed the challenge of maintaining harmony within these expanded communities. Similarly, philosopher Robert Bellah, in his works Religion in Human Evolution and The Axial Age and Its Consequences, contends that religion transcends mere belief systems; it embodies a distinct mode of collective existence. UC Santa Barbara Professor Jonathan Turner stresses the importance of emotional connections, aligning with Charles Darwin's view that religious feelings are not fundamentally different from other emotions. This perspective will be further explored in my next article, suggesting that religious sentiments can be studied similarly to other biological phenomena.
It does not require one to be a philosophical anthropologist to grasp that as human interactions grew in number and complexity—both positive and negative—there emerged a necessity to distinguish "us" from "them." Early concepts of religious rituals served as foundational elements that united groups while differentiating them from others, akin to what we observe in today's multicultural societies.
Similar to practices still seen in various Amazonian and African tribes, shamanistic beliefs do not necessitate formal religious doctrines; yet, they play a crucial role in maintaining social balance. Until the imposition of rigid doctrinal religions in recent centuries, shamanic-like practices dominated human history. Activities such as tribal dances, communal meals, and mating rituals fostered strong bonds among participants, engaging the endorphin system and promoting broader social cohesion. Philosophers often trace the evolution from these experiential and communal practices to the more organized, hierarchical religious rituals observed in contemporary communities.
To comprehend these aspects of prehistoric spirituality, modern religious biases, theological intricacies, and cultural conflicts must be set aside. There are substantial overlaps in foundational practices among prehistoric humans across various regions, suggesting that our ancestors were inherently predisposed to adopt and develop some form of religious practice to sustain their communal lives. Over time, these shared practices evolved into elaborate rituals that have significantly influenced human societies for millennia.
Rituals Extend Beyond Humanity
Even within the animal kingdom, evidence of ritualistic behaviors can be observed, particularly among our closest relatives, such as chimpanzees. Jonathan Turner, in his book The Emergence and Evolution of Religion, posits that these behaviors may be encoded in their genetics, indicating a profound evolutionary link between playfulness and the development of religious customs.
While our primate relatives form groups and display coordinated behaviors, their social connections lack the depth seen in humans, and they do not adhere to structured social norms. This raises a critical question: How did evolutionary forces shape our ancestors into more social beings, diverging from their more solitary ape relatives? Turner suggests that the answer lies in the capacity of early humans to bond through rituals and play, which became essential for their survival amid shifting environments.
As evolution enhanced brain function, emotional and social bonds among primates transformed significantly. For example, apes can read eye movements, mimic facial expressions, demonstrate empathy, participate in ritualistic behaviors, and recognize themselves as distinct entities within their environment. Jane Goodall documented rhythmic displays of chimpanzees during rainfall, suggesting that these creatures convey an internalized spiritual experience through their actions.
Anthropologist Frans de Waal highlights evidence of reconciliation behaviors among animals, where various species engage in social repair after conflicts. This behavior is evident beyond primates, extending to hyenas, dolphins, wolves, and domestic goats. He suggests that animals actively strive to maintain harmony within their social groups by reconciling after disputes, protesting against inequality, and intervening in others' conflicts.
When these scattered observations are synthesized, it becomes apparent that the evolution of religion is not a mystical or supernatural occurrence (and it certainly did not originate in the heavens or through sacred texts). Humans (and primates) were destined to cultivate spirituality and ritualistic connections, supported by both genetic and psychological factors.
What Underpins Modern Religions?
When we consider the origins of religion, two primary perspectives emerge. The first views religion as a beneficial tool that facilitates social cohesion within communities. Given that all societies possess some form of religion, it must fulfill a social function. The second perspective regards religion as an offshoot of human civilization—once useful but now less relevant.
While evolutionary factors have fostered spirituality and religiosity, they have not anchored humans to rigid religious doctrines that hinder emotional and interpersonal growth. The establishment of doctrines occurred through various means, including coercion, greed, and power, or under the guise of providing sustainability. The marginalization of atheists (and adherents of differing sects) even in the 22nd century suggests that it might not have been feasible to thrive without adhering to one of the prevailing doctrines in earlier times. This sheds light on the adoption of doctrines, despite limited biological and evolutionary impetus.
Agricultural Advancements and Their Impact on Religion
Historian David Christian identifies agriculture as a transformative innovation that catalyzed profound shifts in human societies. The rise of farming led to population surges, increased social complexity, and the formation of extensive political, economic, and military networks. As mega-settlements emerged, the complexity of social structures necessitated new rules governing property, rights, status, and authority, resulting in class stratification among rulers, merchants, and priests.
With the establishment of permanent settlements due to agricultural practices, sporadic rituals like tribal dances became insufficient to foster social behavior in these larger, more established communities. To navigate this challenge, more organized and regularized rituals became necessary to promote social cohesion.
The shift to permanent settlements coincided with the agricultural revolution, marking the establishment of farming communities. Gobekli Tepe in southeastern Turkey stands out as one of the earliest ritual sites from this era. Klaus Schmidt, the German archaeologist who led its excavation, referred to it as humanity's first "cathedral on a hill," composed of non-residential spaces featuring temple-like structures. This archaeological site represents a pivotal moment in human history, highlighting early efforts to establish communal and religious frameworks in response to the dynamics of settled agricultural societies.
The concept of the Axial Age, introduced by philosopher Karl Jaspers, signifies a period of profound intellectual and cultural change across regions such as China, India, Iran, Israel, and Greece. This era marked a rapid evolution in thought, characterized by the emergence of religions with unique rituals and doctrines.
A central theme of the Axial Age revolved around the exploration of the true nature of God, societal roles, and the responsibilities of individuals and rulers. For instance, in Greece, Plato shifted focus from heroic figures like Achilles to individuals such as Socrates. In India, the Buddha renounced his claim to royal succession, while in Israel, prophetic narratives disrupted the traditional unity of God and monarch.
Ultimately, the Axial Age marked an intellectual revolution that diminished the centrality of kingship, elevating thought leaders and prophets within the cultural landscape. This period laid the groundwork for the emergence of major religions, initially as ideas or hypotheses, but soon imposed on larger populations by rulers and conquerors. With advancements in military capabilities and warfare, the religious landscape underwent rapid changes that continue to evolve to this day.
The Resilience of Spiritual Instincts Amidst Declining Religiosity
It seems we are coming full circle. Humans possess an inherent inclination towards spirituality, influenced by certain genetic and neurological factors. These factors existed long before the establishment of formal religious doctrines, organized religions, or concepts of divinity. The shamanic and ritualistic behaviors of humans (as well as our primate relatives) exemplify this innate drive. As our understanding of the physical and biological origins of the universe and life on Earth expands, traditional concepts of God and religious doctrines may gradually become less relevant. Western societies are already witnessing this shift, with increasing resistance to outdated practices and traditions. People are becoming less religious and more self-aware. De Waal describes this phenomenon as "spiritual but not religious," suggesting that the rise of spirituality—marked by personalized value systems and a sense of connection to the transcendent—will lead to such a transformation. This shift may manifest as a new age culture, where individuals engage in practices such as yoga, meditation, and crystal healing to achieve a sense of unity with the transcendent.
I resonate with this viewpoint as I observe individuals transitioning away from religious beliefs, yet not entirely freeing themselves from spirituality. Perhaps our brains are hardwired for this search. Yet, how can one escape? The loss of religion creates a void that must be filled due to our biological predisposition for spirituality. This cycle of seeking meaning in human existence, realizing its absence, and embarking on a new quest for understanding through emerging doctrines is perpetual. One clear example of this self-exploration is the phenomenon of voluntary religious conversions in contemporary society.
This indeed illustrates a cyclical pattern.
While the insights from this article delve into the evolution and various aspects of religion, forecasting the future of religion is inherently complex. I have sought to highlight the deep-seated roots of religious inclinations within human nature, the adaptive functions of religious beliefs, and the intricate interactions between cognitive abilities, social frameworks, and cultural evolution.
However, predicting future trends involves navigating countless unpredictable variables, including technological advancements, societal shifts, and unforeseen cultural transformations. It is essential to recognize that the evolution of religion is shaped by a multifaceted array of factors, rendering any predictions speculative.
Nonetheless, the narrative does provide considerations for potential future trends. The discussions surrounding the Axial Age, cognitive foundations, and the interplay between genetic and psychological elements suggest that as societies advance, religious beliefs may undergo transformations to address modern challenges and questions. The emphasis on belonging and communal experiences within religion also indicates that the human quest for connection and meaning is likely to endure.
Stay tuned for the next article on the biological aspects of religiosity!
Further Readings:
- https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20190418-how-and-why-did-religion-evolve
- https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20190529-do-humans-have-a-religion-instinct
- Dunbar. 2022. How Religion Evolved: And Why It Endures. Pelican Books ISBN 978–024143178
- Religion in Human Evolution: From the Paleolithic to the Axial Age (2011)
- The Axial Age and Its Consequences (2012)
- The Emergence and Evolution of Religion by Means of Natural Selection
- https://nautil.us/chimps-and-the-zen-of-falling-water-235527/
- de Waal FBM, van Roosmalen A (1979) Reconciliation and consolation among chimpanzees. Behav Ecol Sociobiol5:5546.
- https://www.businessinsider.com/big-history-lecture-by-david-christian-2014-10
- https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/gobekli-tepe-the-worlds-first-temple-83613665/#:~:text=And%20partly%20because%20Schmidt%20has,%22cathedral%20on%20a%20hill.%22
- https://news.johncabot.edu/2019/11/axial-age/#:~:text=The%20term%20'Axial%20Age%2C',human%20society%20and%20culture%20emerged.